Wednesday, October 30, 2019

Instructional iBook Project for UC Irvines Neurology Clerkship Thesis

Instructional iBook Project for UC Irvines Neurology Clerkship - Thesis Example all students in the clerkship are provided iPads, the iPads will also insure that students get 24 hour access to comprehensive learning tools and student support services. As a learning tool inside and outside of the classroom, the iBook will blend the theories of problem-based learning in interactive-simulated style to help these medical students practice their critical thinking while fostering intrinsic motivation to learn and collaborate with others. Not only will the iBook aid students with their own learning, but it will also give instructors a way to measure the progress of their students by gathering data about their student’s advancement through iBook simulations and iBook assessment exams. Overall, the project will help all medical students in the Neurology clerkship to better succeed in the program and become better critically thinking medical professionals in the process. The aim of this study is to develop and design an instructional iBook project for UC Irvine’s neurology clerkship. A review of the literature is conducted to establish the rationale for developing and designing an instructional iBook project for UC Irvine’s neurology clerkship. In this regard, the subjects covered include best practices for clinical instruction, instructor certification, student MD certification, and instructional technologies in clinical settings. Clinical instruction is ‘multifaceted and complex’ with the clinical instructor required to manage a number of duties and to ‘respond to competing demands (O’Conner, 2006, p. 27). The clinical instruction is required to have a ‘working knowledge of patients assigned to students’, and must also understand the ‘healthcare problems likely to be encountered and the treatments, procedures and policies that apply’ (O’Connor, 2006, p. 27). At the same time, although students have a common educational goal, they all have different ‘learning needs’ (O’Connor, 2006, p. 27). A common problem for

Monday, October 28, 2019

Sustaining Employee Performance Essay Example for Free

Sustaining Employee Performance Essay There is usually a multitude of different positions within an organization. The different positions are determined by the size of the organization. While many positions may have similar characteristics when it comes to performance and compensation many are also at opposite ends of the spectrum. Based on the position, companies may choose different methods of evaluating performance. Companies also choose different pay scales and incentives based on each position. Two positions that may be compared would be a triage nurse and an admission receptionist. While both of these positions exist in the hospital, they are going to be reviewed and compensated in different ways. Function of Performance Management Systems Performance management system is a process in which companies focus on the performance of the employees and organization. Its a process to improve or build products or service to accomplish the companys mission and goals. Performance management system can include planning work, continually monitoring employees, setting expectations, rating performance, rewarding good performance, and developing performance. Performance management mainly consists of feedback, positive reinforcement, and measurement. Currently, the hospital has information systems for accounting and finance, human resources, customer relationship management, and knowledge management but doesnt have a performance management system in place. It has been recommended that a performance management system be put into place for the triage nurses and admissions receptionist to enhance employee engagement and performance. Enforcing a performance management system will allow the hospital to focus on employees job performance as well as manage them effectively for the business results the organization wants to see and achieve. The hospital will use integrated software to track employee  progress and from the results be able to narrow down what improvements need to be met by the employees, as well as the company. Management will be able to be more responsive and flexible to employee needs while communicating strategic goals, and documenting the communication process. Performance appraisals will also help with the organizational development. Performance appraisal is part of a system that seeks to motivate employees to maximum performance by evaluating the employees effort on the job, comparing it to standards, and using those results to help employees improve (DeCenzo, p. 244). Coaching will be provided from their manager, and performance feedback will be given based upon the coaching. Performance planning will also be relayed as part of the performance management system to establish goals and objectives so that no employee is unaware of what is expected of them as we implement the performance management system. Implementation of the performance management system at first will be on a short term basis while employees and management are getting use to the software. It will be carried out on a weekly base during each employees one on one with their manager, and results will be gathered and feedback will be given. From those results, the employee will receive praise or coaching on what they will need to improve on. The overall goal is to get all employees on the same page and work towards the companys goals while developing strong employees that will be an asset to the companys future. Job Evaluation Methods Job evaluations are used to evaluate an employee’s work and productivity. It not only helps to determine their performance, but it also helps to recognize accomplishments, it helps to determine if there are any future training opportunities and helps the employee develop new skills and set performance goals for the following year (DeCenzo, p. 132). There are two types of appraisals I would use to evaluate a Triage Nurse and an Admissions Receptionist. The first evaluation type would be Critical Incident method, and the second would be the Graphic Rating Scale. Critical Method job evaluation would be good for a Triage Nurse and an Admissions Receptionist because this evaluation is a task-focused based evaluation. Both of these jobs come in contact with clients, and they have certain tasks and procedures to follow with each client. Critical Method focuses on those tasks an employee has and how he or she performance those tasks. The evaluations are done mostly by the managers, by doing observations of the employees and gathering that information for the year. Critical Method job evaluations are very effective relationship building tool because it requires the manager to spend most of their time in the work area working, observing, and interacting with there in employees (DeCenzo, p. 251). This situation could be a disadvantage because your manager is most likely to be there every day and see everything that is going on, but if they are a good manager they are there to provide support and guidance. The Second Performance Job evaluation I would use to evaluate A Triage Nurse and an Admissions Receptionist would be the Graphic Rating Scale method because of the number of Nurses and Receptionist you will have; this will help to identify the very best and poor employees. This type of evaluation helps to separate employees into tiers. This separation can help determine which employees receive promotions or training (DeCenzo, p. 252). However; this evaluation does have disadvantages because it could become difficult to differentiate between employees who are placed in the average group. These employees could have several strengths, but their weaknesses play a role in their tier evaluation. For this method to be effective, the manager must communicate with each employee about their weaknesses and strengths. The result of this coaching session should result in the employee reaching a higher position on the graphic rating scale evaluation in the future. Compensation Plans The pay grade for the Triage Nurse at this particular hospital is a U7 that is a benchmarked position. The pay grade compensation amounts run from $53,400 to $76,200. The median range of this pay grade is $64,100. This pay grade leaves room for growth and advancement, but also can compensate a Triage Nurse who has more than five (5) years of experience which will still leave room for promotions within the pay grade for this position. There are promotional increases every year that this position can earn a total of 5% of the annual increase on the base salary. This bonus is determined on the overall individual performance of the employee. There are 2% increases on the base annual salary for an annual merit increase on top of the individual bonus program. The Admission Receptionist compensation has a lower pay grade  than the Triage Nurse. The pay grade is a U. The range of compensation is between $17,600 and $34,300. The median range of compensation for an employee with about five (5) years experience for an admission receptionist position is $22,800. There are promotional increases every year for this position that depends on individual performance. The highest percentage that can be earned is 3%. This position is eligible for merit increases every year at a 2% increase on the base salary. This position is benchmarked and cannot earn compensation over the pay grade. Importance of Benefits Plans In todays tough recruiting environment, simply providing a competitive salary will not be enough to attract top talent to the organization. Most prospective employees take the benefits package into consideration before accepting a job offer. A well-designed benefits program will increase the appeal of working for the organization, minimize turnover, increase morale, better job performance, and healthier employees. An organization that invests in a benefits program demonstrates to its staff members the length to which it is willing to invest in their future. A company that chooses to invest in its workforce proves the business is stable, that management and ownership believe in the ability of the business to succeed, and it will attract the best talent to the organization (Mann, 2013). It becomes difficult for a company to make progress if it is forced to train new employees continuously because it cannot retain talent. When a business suffers from a high turnover rate, it is very difficult to build that cohesive team of veteran employees that lead the way. Often, offering a well-rounded benefits package will be the difference between an employee choosing to stay with the company or seek employment elsewhere. Providing employee benefits can better the morale of the workforce. By understanding the needs of the companys workforce and addressing those needs, it is very likely that employees will be more dedicated to the company and take their positions and performance more seriously. A business that demonstrates that it cares about their employees can increase loyalty and get better performance from its staff. Healthier employees can also be a benefit to the company as a result of offering these benefits. Providing a dental plan, medical plan, and sick leave helps employees maintain or better their  health. Offering paid sick leave keeps employees who may have a contagious illness from entering the workplace and infecting other staff members. Employees who have a medical and dental plan are more likely to obtain regular checkups resulting in fewer sick days (Mann, 2013). Based on the information presented, it is clear that differences exist between positions within the same organization. Some similarities may be salary increase percentages from one position to the next, but the pay scales are very different. There are many different methods to evaluate job performance and vary from company to company. Position structures also vary greatly from company to company as well. It is important to figure out what works for the specific type of company and the service or goods. No single way has been shown to be most effective for every company that is why it is important to tailor the structure and evaluation process to each companys needs. References DeCenzo, D. A. (2013). Fundamentals of Human Resource Management (11th ed.). Saddle River, NJ: John Wiley Sons. Mann, N. (2013). Top 5 Reasons to offer Employee Benefits. Retrieved from http://businessbee.com

Saturday, October 26, 2019

greek and roman art history Essay -- essays research papers

Greek Empire (600 B.C 1 A.D) Doric Order- entasis- swelling of the columns -always used for largest temples -alternating triglyphs and metopes Ionic Order – scrolls -shafts are thinner - no triglyphs in frieze Corinthian Order –large temples -no triglyphs, just metopes. Archaic Period – 600-500 B.C -  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  stiff and rigid pose -  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  focused on anatomy -  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  archaic smile -  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Kouros, Kore – male and female archaic sculptures. Classical Period -  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  depict distinct motion (Apollo belvedere) 350 B.C roman copy -  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  idealism, focusing on strength of Greece as a whole. Venus D’ Milo – Roman Goddess of love 100 B.C Located in the Louvre Athena Nike (Victory) 100 B.C Depicted w/ wings Not marble Standing in front of ship going into battle Also at the Louvre Hellenistic Period -  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Figure 3.5 Dying Gaul Roman copy 220 B.C -  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Greeks respected the enemy, showed them dying in dignity. -  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Figure 3.17 Vatican, Laocoon (priest of Troy). Early first century, marble. -  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Priest of Troy being punished by the Gods for warning against accepting horse from the Greeks. Sea serpents attacked him and his sons. Beautiful anatomy. Bronze Bronzes are made by making two molds (one larger than the other), pouring melted bronze in...

Thursday, October 24, 2019

Evaluation of Social Identity Theory Essay

Social categorization is the filing of the certain type of people, which is usually expressed to individuals that are the similar to you as ‘us’ or to individuals who you see are different from what you think of yourself as ‘them’. When you observe at other people, you see the differences of how other people look and behave compared to how you usually behave and act during your daily life. Furthermore, you will categorize them as being ‘them’ as a word to describe either the significant or insignificant differences between people that are similar to you and people who are not similar to how you look or behave. For e.g. some people often think that they are ‘cool’ based on their own opinion, but when someone else is different they might be considered as being ‘uncool’. Social identity looks mainly at the individual characteristics that determine who you actually are. It is solely based on what you do that defines you socially or in public, which makes people believe that this is your identity. Social Identity is not personal identity as there is no correspondence. Personal identity basically looks at what you do personally compared to social identity, which is solely about the individual characteristics that you represent in the eye of the public. You can be socially identified to be e.g. ‘a nerd’, because of your individual characteristics that seem to define you in resemblance to a nerd, for example, being knowledgeable or smart in terms of IQ or the way you dress or look. Or that someone is gay or a lesbian, because they act unusually strange resembling of how the opposite gender usually acts. Additionally, the way they dress that is unusual in the public’s eye, so they will be easily identified as being gay or a lesbian, e.g. a man wearing tight-fit shorty shorts and long boots with a handbag or a woman with short hair  wearing a hoodie with baggie trousers and casual Nike shoes. Social comparison is the comparison between individuals due to the differences from the determination of the characteristics of one person. Our conscience is socially aware to help us be able to understand these differences so that we are able to distinguish people that are alike and people that are different. Furthermore, we tend to help people due to their individual characteristics that are similar to ours and instead we are hesitant or not willing to help someone else that are considered to be different from ‘us’. In Tajfel’s theory, it is an experiment conducted with students that are sorted into small groups. Each group produced an artwork and they were then told to rate the painting work of other groups, including their own. At the end result, one group that is pre-dominantly male-based has given their own artwork very high ratings, while the ratings of others were low. This shows the differences between self-admiration and egotistical thinking, as they are putting themselves in best priority. Positive Distinctiveness are †¦. That is recognized as being special and different to what is already common†¦

Wednesday, October 23, 2019

The Great Charlemagne

There was relatively little commerce in Western Europe. Roads, bridges, and the infrastructure generally were non-existent. Furthermore, the countryside was unsafe for travel due to a lack of organized law enforcement. Small villages had to take care of themselves; therefore, manufacturing was carried on only to the extent that was needed to supply local needs. In the little kingdoms or principalities, the lands over which a King ruled were regarded as no different from other property. Among the Franks, all sons were entitled to a share. Therefore, when a King died, each son became a King over his own little kingdom. Thus, many political units became small so there were no uniform laws or policies. This lack of unity made them vulnerable to enemies as well as conflict from within. Bullough points out that the loyalty of a warrior or subject to his chosen leader was not a light matter. The author does not contrast that concept of loyalty however, with our present ideas of loyalty to the homeland or institution. â€Å"The apprenticeship of a King† describes how Charlemagne gained power through conquest and diplomacy. In 768, King Pippin died and his kingdom was divided between his two sons. Charles, the elder, and the younger was Carloman. The author says that little is known of Charles† boyhood. When he was of the right age, it is recorded that he worked eagerly at riding and hunting. It was the custom of the Franks to ride and be practiced in the use of arms and ways of hunting. We may reasonably infer that acquiring these skills formed a major part of his early education. Charles was not a â€Å"man of letters† and the author makes no attempt at explaining this other than to point out that literacy was considered unimportant at that time for anyone other than the clergy and Charles didn†t become interested in â€Å"letters† until later in life. Bullough explains a number of experiences in public duties and responsibilities, which were assigned to Charles by his father, thus, giving him an apprenticeship to rule the kingdom. For some reason tension between Charles and his brother began shortly after their accession. The author explains a number of conflicts. The younger brother died however, at the end of 771 and a number of prominent people in his kingdom offered allegiance to Charles. Bullough names and explains those subjects. The result was the re-uniting of those territories, which helped to establish the kingdom of the Franks. The author describes in detail the military conquests of Charlemagne. The text includes maps of the territories and battlefields. It is stated that to some areas, Charles may have come as a liberator from the infidel yoke, but to many other peoples who bordered his dominions, Christian and Non-Christian alike, he was an oppressive enemy, like so many others before and after. In 880, Pope Leo III called on Charles for assistance when he faced charges of simony, perjury, and adultery. Charles acted with careful deliberation when dealing with this matter. Charles was asked to preside over the Pope†s hearing. He did so, and Leo was cleared of all charges. Two days later, Leo placed a crown on Charles head and proclaimed him Holy Roman Emperor. This gave Charles the â€Å"Devine Right to Rule† according to the Roman Church. The author does not infer from any of this information. Personally, it seems that Charlemagne united an empire by conquest and ruled by the authority of the Pope. Bullough does not suggest that during this time the government and the church became so intervened that there were really one and the same. Having conquered an empire and established the â€Å"Devine Right to Rule†, Charles then, according to Bullough, began to establish some uniformity within the empire. The ancient concept of public order had not been entirely destroyed by the invasion of barbarians within the empire. But, as law and order became weaker, its place was partly taken by the Churchmen†s Nations of peace and right order. The author explains how Charles established a system of courts to see that justice was done to all free disputants and to protect widows and orphans. The author does not state any conclusions as to the results of the establishment of a uniform legal system. Although Charles was not literate, he seems to have placed value in education. Bullough credits him with a revival of learning or a â€Å"Carolingian Renaissance†. Charlemagne saw that education was in serious decline. So he gathered together at his court some of the finest minds of his day. He also sponsored monasteries where ancient books were preserved and copied. He reformed the palace school and saw that monastic schools were set up throughout the realm. The idea of learning was given a time and a place to flourish. The â€Å"Carolingian Renaissance† was an isolated phenomenon. Learning did not catch fire throughout Europe. Only in the royal court and monasteries was there any real focus on education. Yet because of Charles† interest in preserving and reviving knowledge, a wealth of ancient manuscripts was copied for future generations. Just as important, a tradition of learning was established in European monastic communities. These monasteries helped to overcome the threat of the extinction of Latin culture. The Carolingian handwriting that evolved during Charlemagne†s reign was developed to increase the legibility of the numerous manuscripts the monks turned out at this time. These small letters, known as â€Å"Carolingian Miniscule† became the basis of the lower case letters we use today. Ninety percent of the works of ancient Rome now in existence are preserved in the form of manuscripts copied in a Carolingian Monastery. Bullough devotes much time to the areas on art and architecture during the Carolingian period. Included are photographs of buildings, which are standing, and in use today. There are also ground plan drawings of buildings and samples of other works of art. Being closely aligned with the church, it is not surprising that the major examples of Carolingian architecture are churches and Biblical illustrations make up much of the art. These are not the only works. There are also many secular works, such as â€Å"Charles and his Warriors†. Bullough tries to separate legend from reality. It seems that while Charles attempted to rekindle an interest in learning and unite various groups into one nation, he never addressed the economic difficulties that Europe faced now that Rome no longer furnished order. Although Charlemagne did devise the system of pounds, shillings and pence used throughout Europe during the middle ages and in Britain until recently, other segments of the infrastructure continued to decline. Roads and bridges fell into decay, trade was fractured, and manufacturing was by necessity a localized craft instead of a widespread and profitable industry. But these are only failures if Charlemagne†s goal was to rebuild the Roman Empire. It is doubtful, however, that that was his motive. Charles was a Frankish Warrior King with the background and traditions of Germanic peoples. He probably succeeded in his goals. Charlemagne treated his empire as his personal property and divided his realm among his sons. Either he failed to realize that only with unity could the empire become a true power, or he placed his own wished, and those of his sons, above the decisions that would best serve the empire. The book is a good source for specific information. It is not a book that I would suggest reading for pleasure. Bullough gives facts and sources but does not stimulate thought. I am sure this book would be great if the reader had considerable knowledge of history. The author makes few direct connections or speculations as to why Charlemagne made certain decisions and took certain actions or the long-term effects of his actions. The author infers most of the conclusions included in this paper in a vague way. At times, I found myself groping for conclusions as to why certain actions were taken. This book provides the reader with hard facts about the Middle Ages in Europe. It does not allow the reader to draw many theories as to the ideas and feelings of the people.

Tuesday, October 22, 2019

The Paradox of American Government

The Paradox of American Government The unresponsiveness of the government institutions to the public demands highly affects on the citizen participation and voter participation. The Americans have different ways of expressing their popular over the government institutions and when these institutions fail to respond to such demands there are many reactions from the citizens. The most distressing thing is that these institutions even dismiss the reactions of the citizens according to Ethridge and Handelman (1997).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Paradox of American Government specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Citizen participation involves three aspects participating in public hearings, comment procedures and reviews thus failure of the government to respond to public demands affects these three aspects. For instance, the citizens fail to attain legitimate involvement in planning and other decisions. This in turn affects the welfare of the community which cannot be achieved without mutual agreement between the public and the government. In such situations, the public also feels unsatisfied and like they are not being paid attention to, as stated by Peltzman (1998). This results in public chaos such as demonstrations and strikes which are believed to be the main way to make the government address their needs. Similarly citizen participation in government duties such as public hearing reduces since the citizens do not feel comfortable with the government’s activities. Citizen participation is very important in the review process of any government procedures, therefore failure of the federal system to address their demands results to them paying little attention to the reviews and this might slow down development projects. Moreover, such unresponsiveness antagonizes the members of the public as they ditch them against each other. This is because they forced to speak of their problems in unfriendly terms to terms to get thei r problems known. This in return makes the decision makers unable to sort out what the citizens want hence unable to make a choice of using public input as stated by Rothstein and Steinmo (2002). Such acts also discourage the busy and thoughtful citizens from wasting their moments doing what appears to be unnecessary to the federalist systems. The unresponsiveness also raises the ambivalence of citizens and other public officers on the hearing from the community at all. Voter participation is an important duty for every citizen as it allows them to participate in political decisions. However, the federal government’s failure to respond adequately to their demands reduces their interest in the government hence the following voter participation is likely to be low. When the federal government does not pay attention to the public needs and the elected delegates do not act according to their promise, the voters feel betrayed and the result of this definitely is a less voter turno ut or change of interest. As a result it is very important for the federal government to ensure that the interest of the people is valued as suggested by Milakovich and Gordon (2012).Advertising Looking for essay on government? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The public interest is very crucial in the planning of development projects thus when the public feels that their interest is looked down upon, they have the right to demand the rights including demanding for re-election especially if their concern has not been addressed. The American public is and has remained very influential in political matters and especially those affecting the citizens directly and this usually determines how voter participation turns out to be, according to Hill (2006). As a result, if the government fails to listen to their demands, the public is bound to have the same influence on voter participation and this will be most likely in a ne gative way. References Ethridge, M. E. Handelman, H. (1997). Politics in a Changing World. Auckland: Cengage. Hill, D. L. (2006). American voter turnout: an institutional perspective. Michigan: Westview Press. Milakovich, M. E. Gordon, G. J. (2012). Public Administration in America. Auckland: Cengage Learning. Peltzman, S. (1998). Political Participation and Government Regulation. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Rothstein, B. Steinmo, S. (2002). Restructuring the Welfare State: Political Institutions and Policy Change. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Paradox of American Government specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More

Monday, October 21, 2019

Homeless, Struggling Veterans. Professor Ramos Blog

Homeless, Struggling Veterans. Seth Ochs English 101 14 April 2019 In the great United States of America, Veterans serve our country risking their lives to protect not only us, but the freedoms that are cherished by many every single day. For decades, we the people have remained bystanders, watching our Veterans return home from deployment and/or wars and struggle to find jobs, shelter to live in, and even food. According to VA.gov, †On a single night in January 2018, just over 37,800 Veterans were experiencing homelessness. On the same night, just over 23,300 of the Veterans counted were unsheltered or living on the street.†(VA.gov). As Americans, it is our duty to find a solution to this issue and assure that no member of the military falls through the cracks and is forgotten. A little background on our homeless, struggling veterans to keep in mind is that according to The U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) ,†The nation’s homeless veterans are predominantly male, with roughly 9% being female.†(Nchv.org). This is primarily because the first women were not allowed to serve in the military until 1948 working as nurses, technicians, officers and more.(Nchv.org). Up until around 1976, women were admitted into the first service academy for combat preparation.(Nchv.org). With this being said, there may have been less women actually in the service at the time, but that does not affect the statistics in regards to homeless female veterans. â€Å"Immunity to homelessness does not exist for any subset of the veteran population. Homelessness does not discriminate against gender or race, though it is worth noting that women veterans are an exceptionally vulnerable portion of this population. Women veterans are at an increased risk of homelessness (2.4 percent), when compared to their male veteran counterparts (1.4 percent). This is in part due to their increased risk of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), loss of employment, dissolution of marriages, and feelings of having a lack of gender-specific support. These increased risks may all be amplified if the veteran does not self-identify as a veteran –– meaning they may be less likely to be offered or seek veterans benefits. It is also important to note that 21 percent of homeless women veterans have dependent children, which often times may add to the anxiety and importance of finding permanent housing. In the VFW’s survey of women veterans, 46 percent of women veterans who were homeless or at risk of becoming homeless were currently living in another person’s home, of that 46 percent, 71 percent have children.†(VFW.org). Due to such hardships, it is crucial that we discover a solutio n in which will benefit not only all of our veterans, but our female soldiers and single moms from the service. Through research, I have found multiple efforts and ideas to prevent and solve the issue of homeless veterans within the United States. The United States Interagency Council on Homelessness has provided a list of ten strategies. If we can,â€Å"Get State and Local Leaders to Publicly Commit to and Coordinate Efforts on Ending Veteran Homelessness.†(USICH) we will be able to have more people involved in putting and end to homeless veterans because there would be better advertising of the issue, as well as having political figures support the movement with funding and resources. By trying to,† Implement a Housing First System Orientation and Response.†(USICH) we will be able to help provide semi-permanent shelter to those that reach out to the program resulting in more women and children becoming successful and having a better opportunity to exit poverty and create a better way of life. For this system to run smoother and be more successful, we need to,† Implement a Coordinated Entry System.†(USICH) allowing for ease of application and plenty of resources. Another great way to help advance the idea and stay on track is to,† Set and Meet Ambitious Short and Long-Term Goals by Deploying All Resources Effectively.†(USICH). For those that are unable to apply for the housing first system, we need to,† Improve Transitional Housing Performance and Consider Adopting Different Models and/or Converting or Reallocating Resources Into Supportive Housing.†(USICH). By doing this, it will help get more veterans living in areas of poverty or high expense in to greater living conditions and a place that may be more affordable long term. To help begin the process of creating facilities with semi or permanent housing, we need to,† Engage and Support Private Landlords as Partners,† as well as,† Identify and Be Accountable to all Veterans Experiencing Homelessness.†(USICH). For those that are unable to apply for housing and do not know where to go, we can,†Conduct Coordinated Outreach and Engagement Efforts,† which can help lead to an,† Increased Connections to Employment.†(USICH). And for those who are homeless to legal mistakes, poor credit, debts, etc. we ca n,â€Å" Coordinate With Legal Services Organizations To Solve Legal Needs.†(Usich.gov). With some of these ideas being more difficult to accomplish that others, joining together can help us get our veterans off of the streets. One problem that may occur during our mission to better the lives of struggling for Veterans, is the want to do better for themselves. For some, the problem may be not wanting to feel vulnerable, dealing with mental illness and refusing assistance , or possibly alcohol and drug addiction. Regardless of what services may be offered the homeless seem to refuse shelter and prefer to remain in the streets overnight. From first hand experience, when people are homeless they cling to the objects and belongings that they have and do what they can to keep their belongings. By staying the night in a shelter, they are typically unable to bring what they have inside the facility with them and others will steal their things overnight. From research that I have done, we as the people of the states can fix the problem of homeless veterans in America and can better the lives of the women and the upcoming generations of children suffering. â€Å"Demographics of the U.S. Military.† Council on Foreign Relations, Council on Foreign Relations, www.cfr.org/article/demographics-us-military.https://www.history.org/history/teaching/enewsletter/volume7/images/nov/women_military_timeline.pdfNational Coalition for Homeless Veterans, nchv.org/index.php/news/media/background_and_statistics/.VHA Office of Mental Health. â€Å"Homeless Veterans.† Go to VA.gov, 8 Mar. 2012, va.gov/HOMELESS/pit_count.asp.https://www.usich.gov/resources/uploads/asset_library/Ten-Strategies-to-End-Veteran-Homelessness-v3.pdfhttps://www.va.gov/HOMELESS/pit_count.asp â€Å"Addressing Veteran Homelessness: Current Position; Future Course.† The Official Seal of the Veterans of Foreign Wars of the U.S., www.vfw.org/advocacy/national-legislative-service/congressional-testimony/2018/1/addressing-veteran-homelessness-current-position-future-course.

Sunday, October 20, 2019

Texas AM University-Kingsville Admissions Data

Texas AM University-Kingsville Admissions Data Texas AM - Kingsville has an acceptance rate of 82%, making the school largely accessible to interested students. In order to apply, prospective students will need to submit an application, standardized test scores, and official high school transcripts. For complete instructions and requirements, be sure to visit the schools website or contact the admissions office for assistance. Admissions Data (2016): Texas A M University - Kingsville Acceptance Rate: 82%Test Scores 25th / 75th PercentileSAT Critical Reading: 420 / 520SAT Math: 430 / 540SAT Writing: - / -What these SAT numbers meanACT Composite: 17 / 23ACT English: 15  / 21ACT Math: 16  / 23What these ACT numbers mean Texas AM University-Kingsville Description: Texas AM University-Kingsville is a public, four-year university located in Kingsville, Texas, with the 250-acre campus just 40 miles from the beaches of Corpus Christi. The university also has another 545 acres nearby that support livestock management programs. TAMUK is the parent institution of Texas AM University-San Antonio. Texas AM University-Kingsville offers a long list of academic programs from its Colleges of Arts and Sciences, Business Administration, Education and Human Performance, Graduate Studies, Frank H. Dotterweich College of Engineering, Honors College, and Dick and Mary Lewis Kleberg College of Agriculture, Natural Resources, and Human Sciences. Academics at the university are supported by a 20 to 1 student / faculty ratio.  Students stay engaged outside of the classroom, and the campus is home to numerous student clubs and organizations, as well as  intramural sports including racquetball, dodge ball, and bowling. The university is also home to six fraterniti es and five sororities.   On the intercollegiate front, the AM-Kingsville Lions compete in the NCAA Division II  Lone Star Conference  (LSC). The university fields five mens and seven womens varsity sports. Enrollment (2016): Total Enrollment: 9,278  (6,811  undergraduates)Gender Breakdown: 52% Male / 48% Female75% Full-time Costs (2016 - 17): Tuition and Fees: $8,049  (in-state); $21,355 (out-of-state)Books: $1,344  (why so much?)Room and Board: $8,530Other Expenses: $4,217Total Cost: $22,140  (in-state); $35,446 (out-of-state) Texas AM University-Kingsville Financial Aid (2015  - 16): Percentage of New Students Receiving Aid: 87%Percentage of New Students Receiving Types of AidGrants: 77%Loans: 65%Average Amount of AidGrants: $9,788Loans: $6,781 Academic Programs: Most Popular Majors:  Accounting, Biomedical Sciences, Business Administration, Communication Sciences and Disorders, Criminology, Interdisciplinary Studies, Mechanical Engineering, Psychology Transfer, Graduation and Retention Rates: First Year Student Retention (full-time students): 71%Transfer Out Rate: 38%4-Year Graduation Rate: 15%6-Year Graduation Rate: 29% Intercollegiate Athletic Programs: Mens Sports:  Football, Basketball, Track and Field, Baseball, Cross CountryWomens Sports:  Cross Country, Basketball, Golf, Softball, Tennis Volleyball Data Source: National Center for Educational Statistics Interested in Texas AM University-Kingsville? You May Also Like These Colleges: University of Texas at Arlington:  ProfileTexas AM University-Corpus Christi:  ProfileTexas AM University-Commerce: ProfileUniversity of Texas-Austin: Profile | GPA-SAT-ACT GraphUniversity of Texas-Pan American (UTPA): ProfileUniversity of Texas-San Antonio (UTSA): ProfileBaylor University:  Profile  |  GPA-SAT-ACT GraphWest Texas AM University:  ProfileTexas Tech University:  Profile  |  GPA-SAT-ACT GraphSam Houston State University:  ProfileTexas Christian University:  Profile  |  GPA-SAT-ACT GraphTexas AM University Main Campus:  Profile  |  GPA-SAT-ACT GraphStephen F. Austin State University:  ProfileUniversity of Houston:  Profile  |  GPA-SAT-ACT Graph Texas AM University-Kingsville Mission Statement: mission statement from  tamuk.edu/administration/accred-mission.html The mission of Texas AM University-Kingsville is to develop well-rounded leaders and critical thinkers who can solve problems in an increasingly complex, dynamic and global society. Located in South Texas, the university is a teaching, research and service institution that provides access to higher education in an ethnically and culturally diverse region of the nation. Texas AM-Kingsville offers an extensive array of baccalaureate and masters degrees, and selected doctoral and professional degrees in an academically challenging, learner-centered and caring environment where all employees contribute to student success.

Saturday, October 19, 2019

Street Gangs & Disproportionate Minority Contact Assignment

Street Gangs & Disproportionate Minority Contact - Assignment Example OJJDP has successfully developed an anti- gang programs whose elements represent prerequisite components of an effective intervention and suppression program. OJJDP adopted a comprehensive community based gang program model by Spergel based on research and development programs on gangs (Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, 2014). According to National Gang Center (2014), a successful a successful gang intervention program should encompass the following the following community mobilization, social intervention, opportunity provisions, suppression, organization change and development. According to National Gang Center (2014), community mobilization entails the incorporation of the community at large in the intervention programs. Some of the pertinent parties that should be considered during the program include immediate residents of the given locality, reformed gang members, community groups such as football teams and private agencies within the area. In addition, it is pertinent that an elaborate framework be instituted to oversee the synergy and coordination of staff functions. Social intervention involves the utilization of existing social fraternities to guide gang members adopt conventional norms of the community (National Gang Center, 2014). These social groups may include schools, religious organizations, the police and juvenile institutions. Additionally, the program should provide opportunities for the gang members through education programs, training and provision of employment to reformed gang members. Consequently, gang related activities should be su ppressed through consistent supervision and monitoring of gang members by the police, youth affiliated agencies and the criminal justice systems. Finally, a holistic approach to intervention programs should entail organizational change and development. The program’s policies and procedure should demonstrate effective and sustainable

Nature of Philosophy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Nature of Philosophy - Essay Example According to Nash (2010), the nature of philosophy is the way people live and view the world. It points out clearly how people live a life without a god. Nash (2010) argues further that philosophy is a way of comprehending the world around us. This implies that its nature includes the ability to view something and interpret it into realities that make sense to us. Philosophy has a vital purpose to us. It helps us apprehend what world view is. We are able to attain a good understanding of our own world views. It guides us to improve our own ways of viewing the world. Philosophy makes us become familiar with world view of others. We are able to know that world views are different. For instance, our world view as students differs with those of Plato and Socrates (Nash 2010). Philosophy has a great response to the ultimate questions in the world. It provides possible solutions to the ultimate causes in the world. It also explains the purpose of existence of human beings. This implies that the study of philosophy will help us comprehend who we are. Finally, it assists us to adapt to our world. Finally, Philosophy plays a major in recognizing people’s values in the world. It does not take sides. Instead, it provides a space for all manner of thinking. It serves the purpose like that of the chief judge in a government. This means that it listens, comprehends and analyzes all circumstances in a given situation. Discussion of the World Views World view contains people’s answers to key questions in life. It is a systematic roadmap with an individual’s beliefs. It has factual views of life and the globe. Many views of the world lack consistency. Therefore, few of them are complete with a systematic steadiness. It is a vital thing to attain a high awareness of world view. World view helps others to understand their own world views. We can also aid them accomplish a systematic and consistent world view. This implies that a world view is a scheme consisting of our fundamental beliefs. Through it, we are able to judge and interpret our realities. It is fundamen tal to note that world view operates in a similar way the eyeglasses work. For instance, the right eyeglass has the capability to put the planet into a clear focal point. Therefore, the world view can also perform the same duty of eyeglass. This also implies that when people view the world imperfectly, reality does not make sense to them. This means that it is of essence to view the world with the right world view framework. It will impact positive consequences on people’s way of thinking and acting (Nash 2010). Components of World View Beliefs about God Any world view has a vital element. A world view differs greatly over basic questions about God. For instance, is there God? What is His nature? Is God a human being? And who created God? These conflicting views result to inconsistent world views. This is because different world view systems have diversified world views concerning God. For instance, the Hinduism and Buddhism differ from the Judaism and Christianity about the beliefs of God. Therefore, the view of God is an important component of World view. Ultimate Reality World view entails of solutions to questions about the universe. For instance, the world view responds to questions like: Who created the world? What is the main purpose of the world? Will the universe be destroyed finally? Is the universe spiritual, material or something different? These questions do not take place in most people. But anyone reading Ronald’s book of ultimate Questions of life will think about them. They will hold beliefs about some of them (2010). Theory of Knowledge People in the world strongly hold to this belief of epistemology. They have different opinions once they are asked about the possibility of the knowledge about the world. They will always provide no and yes answers. Some of the key questions in relation to epistemology are: Can we really trust our own senses? What are the main

Friday, October 18, 2019

Phonemic Inventories Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

Phonemic Inventories - Assignment Example The thesis below will discuss the smallest elements of spoken language. One element discussed on this topic is phones versus letters. It is said that human language speech is not only built through face-to-face conversations but also through expressions made through the phones. For instance, if the listener says the word â€Å"puppy!† one will get the meaning through interpretation of messages ( Fountain and Bishoffs 5 ). The meaning of this language is that the person is astonished and even if the visual channels are entirely blocked, the person on the other end will get the message thus the sounds of language are sufficient to allow us to express the meaning. In the word puppy as used in the example, the first word used just a little air is used, very quiet and does not take a longer time. The second sound â€Å"uh†. The third sound is the same as the first one and the final sound is to the vowel â€Å"be†. Single speech sounds are referred by linguistics as phones. These words are separated through a method referred to as orthographic representation, which is specifically designed to write phone of speech occurring to humans naturally (Bartels 221). From the word puppy, the first word appears as pApi in the IPA. Comparing the two the first letters â€Å" P† in the sequences are the same. From the standard English, the letter P usually stand for the sound, but not usually stand for that sound for instance, from the word phrase, the P is silent hence no sound is made during it pronunciation ( Kenneth 79). In the IPA, the letter P always stands for the sound. The second sound in the orthography â€Å" A† in the IPA is represented by the symbol A meaning that the sounds are different. There is no sound in the symbol A, so it is not meaningful ( Kunter 224 ). In the sequence, there is an appearance of the letter â€Å"p† again. The two identical letters sound different from a single letter, and an individual ought to know the

Assignments Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Assignments - Essay Example There are three different arguments about determinism. First, the author said that if determinism is true, then we can accurately predict our future. Also, the author argued that it is completely illogical to completely â€Å"foretell† what would happen to a person’s life because everything has already been determined even at the micro-level. The second argument against determinism is that people can always change their mind about a decision let’s say to do something or to go somewhere. The author calls this â€Å"stepping-back† which is an active participation of an individual to take decisions as well as change decisions in his life. These decisions were based on valuing that the theory of determinism lacks according to Honderich. The last argument against determinism by Honderich is about determinism as â€Å"self-destructive†. He first stated the Epicurean argument to determinism to lay down a strong foundation for his reason. In the end, Honder ich concluded that if determinism was true, then people do not have free will. Of course, we know that man has free will and would do whatever he chooses according to his value judgments. The main difference tells us that Frankfurt believes that a person is still morally responsible for the consequences of his actions. Frankfurt believes that individuals have a choice to make and be answerable for their decisions.

Thursday, October 17, 2019

Leadership Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 42

Leadership - Essay Example This kind of leader does not involve the employees in decision making and rather decisions are made at the top and followed by the employees. McGregor categorized second kind of leaders as leaders who follow theory Y. These leaders are those who believe that employees are interested in working. These leaders empower their employees and provide them with the responsibility as well as the authority to make decisions and implement them in order to complete tasks (Jewell et al., 1994). Unlike leaders who follow Theory X, these leaders do not believe in excessive supervisor of the followers and believe that followers should have the freedom to work on their own. Due to empowerment as well as lower level of supervision, followers feel motivated to work on their own and they solve problems as well as perform tasks in a creative manner. The leadership style that James Cain of Water Brands Group follows is open-minded leadership style. This leadership style is based on McGregor’s leadership theory called theory Y. McGregor proposed that, leaders who follow theory Y leadership tend to empower employees. Similarly, Cain who follows an open-minded leadership style provides empowerment to his followers and employees (Pandit, 2005). He does not believe in making decisions on his own. Instead Cain involves his employees in the decision making process by carefully listening to them and then involving their ideas in the making decisions and solving problems faced by the organization. Theory Y states that employees are naturally interested in working and are ready to take responsibility. Cain is following theory Y because he believes that the people working for him and his followers are the assets of his organizations. This means that he has immense trust in the followers and is quite confident about their knowledge, skills and abilities. Due to this

Draftsmans Duty Of Care In The Preparation Of A Will Essay

Draftsmans Duty Of Care In The Preparation Of A Will - Essay Example In this context the common law development of rules which gives the draftsman's duty of care in preparation of a will has been discussed within the context of cases. The analysis is focused on identifying the solicitor's duties and responsibilities in preparing a will for the clients. Various aspects of preparation of a legal document highlight the significant role of the solicitor who has the duty to adequately represent the testator's intentions and wishes through the legal document. The various types of the draftsman's duties in preparation of a will are discussed in the changing contextual situations of family businesses, mutual or joint will, and breach of duty such as errors or delays. Identifying grammatical and omission errors, providing legal advice to clients, severing joint tenancy and adequately representing a testator's wish in preparing a will are some of the broad issues of draftsman's duties in preparing a will. This discussion is focused on identification of the various types of errors, issues concerning negligence of duty on the part of the solicitor and the possible contextual factors that can lead to these errors or failure t o perform the duties. The methodology adopted for this purpose include sear... Databases such as lexisnexis, bailli, zetoc and westlaw were searched with terms as 'draftsman' 'common law' 'preparation of will' 'solicitor duties' and several cases were located and have been included in this study. The studies obtained were then selected to adequately represent the research focus on identifying the draftsman's duties and responsibilities in preparing a will. The studies were analysed using a qualitative analytical approach from the Kerridge and Brierley (2003) framework of draftsman's errors and legal provisions of family law (1992). The aim of the study is to delineate the general rules of draftsman's duty of care in preparation of a will and the various legal aspects that defines a solicitor's responsibilities and the way he carries out these responsibilities. Draftsman's Duties in Preparation of a Will In preparation of a will, in addition to a general common law framework, trust law, succession law and tax law may have to be considered. A critical appraisal of the client's needs and the words that would meet the client's demands are considered in legal construction and consequences. A new trust deed may begin by choosing a precedent which appears to be the closest to what is required2. If a will or a trust does not meet client's needs, then new words will be required. In case of divorce, the divorcing spouse is a beneficiary and also the children in case of deceased. There has been in recent years an increased emphasis on understanding of law relating to revocation or cancellation of wills. Wills can be lost or misplaced, and this may be a problem if the testator has died in any way. It should also be evident that the will has not been destroyed as given in the case Hacquoil v Imperial Cancer Research (2003 JRC 163).

Wednesday, October 16, 2019

Leadership Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 42

Leadership - Essay Example This kind of leader does not involve the employees in decision making and rather decisions are made at the top and followed by the employees. McGregor categorized second kind of leaders as leaders who follow theory Y. These leaders are those who believe that employees are interested in working. These leaders empower their employees and provide them with the responsibility as well as the authority to make decisions and implement them in order to complete tasks (Jewell et al., 1994). Unlike leaders who follow Theory X, these leaders do not believe in excessive supervisor of the followers and believe that followers should have the freedom to work on their own. Due to empowerment as well as lower level of supervision, followers feel motivated to work on their own and they solve problems as well as perform tasks in a creative manner. The leadership style that James Cain of Water Brands Group follows is open-minded leadership style. This leadership style is based on McGregor’s leadership theory called theory Y. McGregor proposed that, leaders who follow theory Y leadership tend to empower employees. Similarly, Cain who follows an open-minded leadership style provides empowerment to his followers and employees (Pandit, 2005). He does not believe in making decisions on his own. Instead Cain involves his employees in the decision making process by carefully listening to them and then involving their ideas in the making decisions and solving problems faced by the organization. Theory Y states that employees are naturally interested in working and are ready to take responsibility. Cain is following theory Y because he believes that the people working for him and his followers are the assets of his organizations. This means that he has immense trust in the followers and is quite confident about their knowledge, skills and abilities. Due to this

Tuesday, October 15, 2019

ABA Therapy Research Proposal Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

ABA Therapy - Research Proposal Example The will examine methods of controlling autism. The methods examined will include Applied behavioral Analysis, Discrete Trial Training, Functional Communication training, Pivotal response Training, Antecedent based interventions and Parental Implemented intervention. Most of the literature review papers advocate for evidence-based approaches and emphasize on the engagement of a qualified Therapist to a control Autism. However, a meta-analysis will not be possible due to lack of comparable inclusion and characterization criteria. Even so, it will be imperative that we engage the services of a qualified ABA therapist and, for this reason donor funds will be required. The use of ABA therapy is an evidence-based method of controlling autism and is highly recommended. Autism is a neurological disorder that has that has posed a lot of challenges in finding effective ways of control irrespective of the economic state or geographical location of the victims (Hilsen, 2012). Research has not clearly proven the causes of autism though it is likely that autism is caused by genetic and environmental factors. Recent data by the Centre for Disease Control and Prevention has indicated that cases for autism have risen to 1 in every 110 American children. This rate translates to one in every 70 boys and 1 in every 315 ladies. However, there is a concern that only a small percentage of this population has been actually diagnosed with this condition. The Autism Society of America has estimated that over the life of an autism patient, an average of 3.5 million dollars to 5 million dollars is used towards care research, insurance among other costs (Johnson, 2013). Measured in terms of lost productivity and caregiving costs, autism costs America over 90 billion do llars annually. Even though this has been a prevailing problem in the society at large, my attention was drawn to it after I was attached at Mercy Kids Rehab Laredo, Texas. Parents whose children suffer

Monday, October 14, 2019

Macbeth and R+J Essay Example for Free

Macbeth and R+J Essay Shakespeare communicates many moods in Macbeth and Romeo Juliet; the main moods are love, and hate fuelled betrayal, and in my work these are the themes I will analyse. In Romeo Juliet and Macbeth, vital characters have had to betray in order to achieve love, for example; In Romeo and Juliet; Juliet has to betray the authority of her father in order to fulfil her affection for Romeo. In terms of love this would mean that: The Storge (unconditional love, shared amongst family) that Juliet once felt for her father was met by misogyny (Hatred for Women) upon his realisation of Juliet’s Eros (love between two people) towards Romeo. Despite her subdued character, Juliet is adamant on not marrying Paris and betraying her family for Romeo. A quote to support this is; If all else fail, myself have power to die This signifies that Juliet would rather die than enter something that it not right. A quote from Juliet’s Father; â€Å"How now, how now, chop-logic! What is this? † – His use of repetition emphasises his fury in response to Juliet’s new found aggression in character, and his rhetorical question presents his dominance and highlights the hierarchy that was in place at the time to allocate superiority to male’s in a family, in this scene; the breakdown of Juliet’s Father and Mother’s relationship is most apparent. Furthermore this is a point where Juliet is most isolated from her family and becomes closer to Romeo. My alternate interpretation is that Juliet did not betray her family, but her family were betrayed by there own pride, Pride was the cataclysmic barrier between acceptance and condemnation. The most potent character development is Juliet’s, throughout the play she matures and becomes a lot more retaliant to authority and starts to become herself rather than obedient to thers, this process is strengthened because of the speed she has had to become responsible; due to the mandatory pressures she is expected to comply with and the swift 7 day time period in which the story is conveyed, this development in character gives her the willpower to betray her family; which also ultimately supports my point. The dramatic techniques used in Romeo and Juliet create a hastily strong impact due to the play being condensed into a week and an ambience of anxiety. In Macbeth there are several similarities that also support my point; Macbeth has to betray King Duncan despite his loyalty and Philia (The love of Friendship) has to betray him in order to acquire the Eros from the ever superior Lady Macbeth, this situation contradicts all convention as society was heavily patriarchal which suggests that women should be submissive to men; however in this occurrence Macbeth conforms with Lady Macbeths demands to murder King Duncan, this is the main contrast between Macbeth and Romeo Juliet. A quote that coincides with this is; â€Å"But screw your courage to the sticking-place, and well not fail† – Lady Macbeth challenges Macbeth to murder King Duncan, presenting her dominance and ambition over Macbeth. A quote from Macbeth after when placing the blame on the guards for King Duncan’s murder; Here lay Duncan, his silver skin laced with his golden blood†¦ the murderers, steeped in the colors of their trade – This illustrates the betrayal that Macbeth has committed, as his use of alliteration strengthens the deviation of this line and the fact that he is further betraying King Duncan post his death by laying the culpability on the guards; simultaneously justifying there execution. Additionally an alternative interpretation of betrayal is explained using this quote; â€Å"Who can be wise, amazed, temprate, and furious† – Macbeths use of antithesis (underlined) displays how he has slowly become contradictory since his brutal murder of King Duncan which I believe indicates he has betrayed his own nature. The main dramatic technique used in Macbeth is dramatic irony, dramatic irony is where something that is indicated at the start of the play will either become true or change at the end of the play or furthermore could mean the opposite of hat might happen. An example of this is that; â€Å"This castle hath a pleasant seat; the air nimbly and sweetly recommends itself unto our gentle senses. † – This is a significant use of dramatic irony, the description of the environment is pleasant; however unbeknown to King Duncan, this is where he will be murdered, and this also links in to betrayal. Moreover, at the start of the play, Macbeth describes Banquo to be a â€Å"Friend† however later in the play we know that Banquo becomes his enemy and has to be killed due to the fact he is a great threat to Macbeth’s throne; which is a further deception that Macbeth has carried out. Conclusively; I believe Shakespeare’s whole use of dramatic irony links in to betrayal directly, because the constant use of dramatic irony means that the plot keeps changing; effectively displaying that the plot betrays itself continually. This constantly conveys a mood of false anticipation and an eerie sense of the unknown. Reading more in depth into both plays, there are further comparisons; Such as the use of fate, when Romeo and Juliet fall in love we know that because of their backgrounds; it will lead to death, and similarly in Macbeth the witches tell a prophecy in which Macbeth becomes king and then dies both plays contain different forms of tragedy however both plays meet the same end. Evidence to support this in Romeo and Juliet is: â€Å"A pair of star-crossd lovers take their life† – Meaning that two different sided (Montague/Capulet) lovers take their life. And for Macbeth: â€Å"All hail, Macbeth, thou shalt be king hereafter! † – This is the prophecy of Macbeth becoming king and then dying. Furthermore, in Romeo ; Juliet and Macbeth, death is a necessary price to be paid for peace, for example, Romeo and Juliet have to die in order for the Capulet’s and Montague’s to live in tranquillity, to support this, a quote from the beginning soliloquy: â€Å"What here shall miss, our toil shall strive to mend† – This means that where we have failed before we will strive to succeed now, signifying that Romeo and Juliet’s death were essential to the ‘Fair Verona’ achieving peace, likewise in Macbeth, Lady Macbeth and Macbeth’s death was also fundamental to harmony being restored to the ingdom, an additional quote to support this is: â€Å"The usurpers cursed head: the time is free† – the quote is about Macbeth’s severed head, and diverts attention to the fact that with his death ‘the time is free’ which implies it is peaceful. However contrary there are many differences, for example the types of love/relationship between the two couples in each play; In Macbeth there relationship is very unstable and Lady Macbeth is very domineering over Macbeth; also there love for each other is not through passion; but through the lust for greed and power as Lady Macbeth is desperate for Macbeth to become king by killing King Duncan and betraying his loyalty to him: â€Å"And take my milk for gall, you murd’ring ministers† – This suggests she will do anything to become Queen and accentuates her ruthless nature; it also underlines the imbalanced relationship in which the position of superiority continuously changes dramatically. At the start Macbeth is a brave and noble hero and he is superior however as the play goes on and when Macbeth’s manhood is questioned by Lady Macbeth â€Å"are you not a man? † he then becomes submissive and is dictated by Lady Macbeth. In Romeo and Juliet

Sunday, October 13, 2019

Design of 4 Line Private Exchange Box

Design of 4 Line Private Exchange Box INTRODUCTION 1.0 INTRODUCTION Private branch exchange system (PBXs) operates as a connection within private organizations usually a business. Because they incorporate telephones, the general term extension is used to refer to any end point on the branch. The PBX handles calls between these extensions. The primary advantage of PBXs was cost savings on internal phone calls: handling the circuit switching locally reduced charges for local phone services. The private branch exchange (PBX) provides internal station-to-station communications for a well-defined set of users. Three distinct generations of private branch exchanges have appeared. In the first generation (1900-1930), a human operator manually set up calls. Second-generation private branch exchanges (mid-1930s to mid-1970s) used mechanical relays to establish the call path. The third generation of private branch exchanges is the stored-program microprocessor-controlled system. Introduced in the mid-1970s, these systems use computer instructions to perform th e call set-up and tear-down. The third-generation private branch exchange is physically much smaller than electromechanical models, uses less power, and generates less heat.(Brooks, 1999) In this project, the design of a 4 line telephone systems with full signaling and switching functions similar to those of the central office systems was embarked upon. Dial tone, busy tone, and ring tone are provided during call process. Switching employs integrated circuit (IC) matrix switches on four buses. Thus, this system is expandable to 8 lines (4 pairs) if more hardware is added. This system is switching on the Dual Tone Multi Frequency (DTMF) dialing signal. 1.1 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM The major problems this project intends to deal with are: Cut down cost of internal calls made within a company. Eliminate the need for a central telephone company to help you monitor your internal calls. Eliminate Stress of notification of telephone company each time you need a new extension and thereby reducing cost. Ensure security of your internal calls which otherwise can be tapped by company operating it. Eliminate the need for a manual switchboard and subsequently an operator to connect the calls. Reduce man-hours lost through staff walking about in an office in order to pass information to each other. 1.2 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES: The main aim of this project is to design and implement a 4 line private exchange box that is able to create connection between four different telephone lines internally without having to connect to an external or trunk line. The objectives include: Establishing connections between the telephone sets of any two users. (e.g. mapping a dialed number to a physical phone) Maintaining such connections as long as the users require them. (i.e. channeling voice signals between the users) Creating an easy means of communication in an office without getting to spend money for their internal calls. To switch between telephone users thereby creating connections. To make sure the connection remains in place as long as it last, by keeping its resources. To properly end the connection when a user hangs up. 1.3 SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY The ability or concept of providing an easy and less expensive way of communication within a small office or organization without having to pay for your internal calls or having limits to the rate or length of calls within the office. Also it is not necessary to go from office to office when something is needed, information is to be passed; a call to a colleague saves stress of walking about. 1.4 SCOPE OF STUDY The Private Exchange System in this project is limited to a four lines which means that internal calls can be made from only four nodes. As such, it is only suitable for very small organization. 1.5 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY The review of existing and related works to source appropriate information on how to go about the implementation of the project will be carried out. Information shall be gathered from text books, magazines, journals, and World Wide Web to provide answers in relation to the study. Based on the review, the design and implementation of a four line private exchange box system shall be carried out. 1.6 LIMITATIONS OF STUDY There are several factors that could contribute to the group not delving deeper into this project which could have resulted in a more comprehensive work. Constraints are unavoidable in any system, be it a natural system or a computer system. Due to the extensiveness of this project topic, limitations were encountered some of which include: Time constraint. Financial constraints. Inadequate facilities to work with. 1.7 ORGANIZATION OF WORK In chapter one, the research topic is introduced, which is followed by the statement of problem after which the aims and objectives of the study are stated, significance of study, scope of study and research methodology are all identified. The second chapter gives us a view of the related works which have been done and how they are related to our work. The third chapter is about our design methodology and this emphasizes on how the whole private exchange system works and its components. The quality of the system is tested and documented in chapter four. Also in chapter four, an in-depth manual of the system functions and contents is given. A summary of all chapters, a conclusion is outlined in chapter five. CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.0 HISTORY OF PRIVATE EXCHANGE BOX In the field of telecommunications, a telephone exchange or telephone switch is a system of electronic components that connects telephone calls. A central office is the physical building used to house inside plant equipment including telephone switches, which make phone calls work in the sense of making connections and relaying the speech information. Early telephone exchanges are a suitable example of circuit switching; the subscriber would ask the operator to connect to another subscriber, whether on the same exchange or via an inter-exchange link and another operator. In any case, the end result was a physical electrical connection between the two subscribers telephones for the duration of the call. The copper wire used for the connection could not be used to carry other calls at the same time, even if the subscribers were in fact not talking and the line was silent. The first telephone exchange opened in New Haven, Connecticut in 1878. The switchboard was built from carriage bolts, handles from tea pot lids and bustle wire and could handle two simultaneous conversations. Later exchanges consisted of one to several hundred plug boards staffed by telephone operators. Each operator sat in front of a vertical panel containing banks of  ¼-inch tip-ring-sleeve (3-conductor) jacks, each of which was the local termination of a subscribers telephone line. In front of the jack panel lay a horizontal panel containing two rows of patch cords, each pair connected to a cord circuit. When a calling party lifted the receiver, a signal lamp near the jack would light. The operator would plug one of the cords (the answering cord) into the subscribers jack and switch her headset into the circuit to ask, number please? Depending upon the answer, the operator might plug the other cord of the pair (the ringing cord) into the called partys local jack and start the ri nging cycle, or plug into a trunk circuit to start what might be a long distance call handled by subsequent operators in another bank of boards or in another building miles away. 2.1 PBX SYSTEM COMPONENTS PBX is a telephone exchange serving a single organization and having no means for connecting to a public telephone system it serves a user company which wants to have its own communication branch to save some money on internal calls. This is done by having the exchanging or switching of circuits done locally, inside the company. There are some important components which play a major role in the implementation of an effective PBX system. Some of the Component The PBXs internal switching network. Central processor unit (CPU) or computer inside the system, including memory. Logic cards, switching and control cards, power cards and related devices that facilitate PBX operation. Stations or telephone sets, sometimes called lines. Outside Telco trunks that deliver signals to (and carry them from) the PBX. Console or switchboard allows the operator to control incoming calls. Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS) consisting of sensors, power switches and batteries. Interconnecting wiring. Cabinets, closets, vaults and other housings. 2.2 PRIVATE BRANCH EXCHANGE (PBX) There are essentially three different types of PBXs that could be deployed within an organization infrastructure. It is necessary to be certain of type in use, so as to be able to identify the essential numbers. There are currently three different PBX classes: Centrex; Direct Inward Dialing (DID)/Direct Outward Dialing (DOD) and Megalink. 2.2.1 CENTREX Centrex is the easiest of the PBX types. This PBX, unlike other types is installed within the telephone companys Central Office (CO) and does not require dialing an extension code (normally 4 numeric characters) after having dialed the 7 to 10 digit number to connect a call to an individual. In a simplistic manner, it could be considered similar to the telephone used at home. It has an area code (NPA), an Exchange (NXX) and a Unique Number, (0000 to 9999) and does not require the dialling of another number after it in order to place a call. These numbers may be entered through a PAD. 2.2.2 Direct Inward Dialing(DID)/ Direct Outward Dialing (DOD) Unlike a Centrex, these types of PBXs is not installed within the telephone companys Central Office. Secondly, if a cut of the telephone wire occurs outside the building, individuals are still able to dial within it to talk to colleagues by simply dialing their extension number (normally a number between 0000 to 9999) lastly; this PBX is controlled via a computer interface at a control console. Since the PBX requires constant power to function, it may be necessary to hook it with generating plant, in the absence of power from electricity company. Direct Inward Dialing (DID) and Direct Outward Dialing (DOD) are simply features of an Automated PBX which require that you dial the companys general telephone number followed by the entry of the individuals extension number when prompted to do so. DIDs allow you direct dialing (seven digits) to locate an individual within an organizations PBX. It is a trunk phone number that must be entered into the PAD program and flagged as a PBX to ensure that the outgoing line(s) get priority. PBXs may be privately owned or telecommunication company owned. If PBX is programmable it is possible to assign specific trunk lines to specific numbers. These trunk line numbers may then be entered on PAD thus providing dial tone protection. 2.2.3 MEGALINKS The major difference between this and a Centrex PBX is that the exiting trunk lines from a building to the telephone company central office are comprised of fibre optic cables and not through twisted pair wiring. Another difference is that unlike a Centrex that is identified by its ten digit telephone number (NPA, NXX, and Unique), Megalinks are identified by a circuit ID number. This number may contain characters and may even resemble a telephone number, however, PAD does not allow for the entry of the circuit switch identifier. The reason is quite simple, fibre optic cabling circuits can handle far more traffic than twisted pair PBXs. 2.3 INTERFACE STANDARDS Interfaces for connecting extensions to a PBX include: POTS (Plain Old Telephone System) the common two-wire interface used in most homes. This is cheap and effective, and allows almost any standard phone to be used as an extension. Proprietary the manufacturer has defined a protocol. One can only connect the manufacturers sets to their PBX, but the benefit is more visible information displayed and/or specific function buttons. DECT a standard for connecting cordless phones. Internet Protocol For example, H.323 and SIP. Interfaces for connecting PBXs to each other include: Proprietary protocols if equipment from several manufacturers is on site, the use of a standard protocol is required. QSIG for connecting PBXs to each other, usually runs over T1 (T-carrier) or E1 (E-carrier) physical circuits. DPNSS for connecting PBXs to trunk lines. Standardised by British Telecom, this usually runs over E1 (E-carrier) physical circuits. Internet Protocol H.323, SIP and IAX protocols are IP based solutions which can handle voice and multimedia (e.g. video) calls. Interfaces for connecting PBXs to trunk lines include: Standard POTS (Plain Old Telephone System) lines the common two-wire interface used in most domestic homes. This is adequate only for smaller systems, and can suffer from not being able to detect incoming calls when trying to make an outbound call. ISDN the most common digital standard for fixed telephony devices. This can be supplied in either Basic (2 circuit capacity) or Primary (24 or 30 circuit capacity) versions. Most medium to large companies would use Primary ISDN circuits carried on T1 or E1 physical connections. RBS (Robbed bit signaling) delivers 24 digital circuits over a four-wire (T1) interface. Internet Protocol H.323, SIP, MGCP, and Inter-Asterisk eXchange protocols operate over IP and are supported by some network providers. Interfaces for collecting data from the PBX: Serial interface historically used to print every call record to a serial printer. Now an application connects via serial cable to this port. Network Port (Listen mode) where an external application connects to the TCP or UDP port. The PBX then starts streaming information down to the application. Network Port (Server mode) The PBX connects to another application or buffer. File The PBX generates a file containing the call records from the PBX. The call records from the PBX are called SMDR, CDR, or CIL.   (Micheal, 1999) 2.4 TELEPHONE Telephone is one of the most amazing devices ever created.   Although most people take it completely for granted, the telephone is one of the most amazing devices ever created. To talk to someone, just pick up the phone and dial a few digits; connection will be established with the person and a two-way conversation can take place. It is an instrument designed for simultaneous transmission and reception of the human voice. It works by converting the sound waves of the human voice to pulses of electrical current, transmitting the current, and then retranslating the current back to sound. The U.S. patent granted to Alexander Graham Bell in 1876 for developing a device to transmit speech sounds over electric wires is often called the most valuable ever issued. Within 20 years, the telephone acquired a form that has remained fundamentally unchanged for more than a century. The advent of the transistor (1947) led to lightweight, compact circuitry . Advances in electronics have allowed th e introduction of a number of smart features such as automatic redialing, caller identification, call waiting, and call forwarding. The figure 2.1 shows the major components that makes up a telephone set. 2.5 HOW TELEPHONE WORKS When a person speaks into a telephone, the sound waves created by his voice enter the mouthpiece. An electric current carries the sound to the telephone of the person he is talking to. A telephone has two main parts: (1) the transmitter and (2) the receiver.The Transmitter of a telephone serves as a sensitive electric ear. It lies behind the mouthpiece of the phone. Like the human ear, the transmitter has 14 eardrum. The eardrum of the telephone is a thin, round metal disk called a diaphragm. When a person talks into the telephone, the sound waves strike the diaphragm and make it vibrate. The diaphragm vibrates at various speeds, depending on the variations in air pressure caused by the varying tones of the speakers voice.   Behind the diaphragm lies a small cup filled with tiny grains of carbon. The diaphragm presses against these carbon grains. Low voltage electric current travels through the grains. This current comes from batteries at the telephone company. The pressure on the carbon grains varies as sound waves make the diaphragm vibrate. A loud sound causes the sound waves to push hard on the diaphragm. In turn, the diaphragm presses the grains tightly together. This action makes it easier for the electric current to travel through, and a large amount of electricity flows through the grains. When the sound is soft, the sound waves push lightly on the diaphragm. In turn, the diaphragm puts only a light pressure on the carbon grains. The grains are pressed together loosely. This makes it harder for the electric current to pass through them, and less current flows through the grains. Thus, the pattern of the sound waves determines the pressure on the diaphragm. This pressure, in turn, regulates the pressure on the carbon grains. The crowded or loose grains cause the electric current to become stronger or weaker. The current copies the pattern of the sound waves and travels over a telephone wire to the receiver of another telephone. The Receiver serves as an electric mouth. Like a human voice, it has vocal cords. The vocal cords of the receiver are a diaphragm. Two magnets located at the edge of the diaphragm cause it to vibrate. One of the magnets is a permanent magnet that constantly holds the diaphragm close to it. The other magnet is an electromagnet. It consists of a piece of iron with a coil of wire wound around it. When an electric current passes through the coil, the iron core becomes magnetized. The diaphragm is pulled toward the iron core and away from the permanent magnet. The pull of the electromagnet varies between strong and weak, depending on the variations in the current. Thus, the electromagnet controls the vibrations of the diaphragm in the receiver.The electric current passing through the electromagnet becomes stronger or weaker according to the loud or soft sounds. This action causes the diaphragm to vibrate according to the speakers speech pattern. As the diaphragm moves in and out, it pulls and pushes the air in front of it. The pressure on the air sets up sound waves that are the same as the ones sent into the transmitter. The sound waves strike the ear of the listener and he hears the words of the speaker. (www.howstuffworks.com) 2.6 THE RINGER Simply speaking this is a device that alerts you to an incoming call. It may be a bell, light, or warbling tone.  Ã‚   The ringing signal is in an AC wave form.   Although the common frequency used can be any frequency between 15 and 68 Hz.   Most of the world uses frequencies   between   20 and 40 Hz.  Ã‚   The voltage at the subscribers end depends upon loop length and number   of   ringers attached to the line; it could be between 40 and 150 Volts. The ringing cadence (the timing of ringing to pause), varies from company to company.   In the United States the cadence is normally 2 seconds of ringing to 4 seconds of pause. An unanswered phone in the United States will keep ringing until the caller hangs up.   But in some countries, the ringing will time out if the call is not answered. The   most   common   ringing   device is   the   gong   ringer; a solenoid   coil   with a clapper that strikes either a single or double bell. A gong ringer is the loudest signaling device that is solely phone-line powered. Modern telephones tend to use warbling ringers, which are usually ICs powered by the rectified ringing signal.   The audio transducer is a small   loudspeaker via a transformer. Ringers are isolated from the DC of the phone line by a capacitor. Gong ringers in the United States use a 0.47 uF capacitor.   Warbling ringers in the United States generally use a 1.0 uF capacitor.   Telephone companies in other   parts   of   the world   use   capacitors   between   0.2   and   2.0   uF.  Ã‚   The  Ã‚   paper capacitors of the past have been replaced almost exclusively with capacitors made of Mylar film.   Their voltage rating is always 50 Volts.   The capacitor and ringer coil, or Zeners in a warbling ringer, constitute a resonant circuit. When phone is hung up (on hook) the ringer is across the line; and it has merely silenced the transducer, not removed the circuit from the line. When the telephone company uses the ringer to test the line, it   sends   a   low-voltage, low frequency   signal   down   the   line (usually   2 Volts at 10 Hz) to test for continuity. The company compares result with the expected signals of the line.   This is how it can tell whether an added equipment is on the line. If your telephone has had its ringer disconnected, the telephone company cannot detect its presen ce on the line. Because there is only a certain amount of current available to   drive ringers, if ringers are added to phone lines indiscriminately, a point will be reached at which either all ringers will cease to ring, some will cease to ring, or some ringers will ring   weakly. A normal ringer is defined as   a   standard gong   ringer   as   supplied   in   a   phone   company   standard   desk telephone; Value given to this ringer   is   Ringer   Equivalence Number   (REN)   1. It can be as high as 3.2, which means that device consumes the equivalent   power   of   3.2 standard ringers, or 0.0, which means it consumes no current when subjected   to   a   ringing   signal.   If   there is a problem with ringing, it could be that the REN is greater than 5, disconnecting ringers until REN is at 5 or below will usually solve the problem. Other countries have various ways of expressing   REN,   and some   systems   will handle no more th an three of   their   standard ringers.   But whatever the system, if an extra equipment was added and the   phones   stop ringing, or the phone answering   machine   wont pick   up   calls,   the solution is disconnect   ringers   until   the problem   is resolved. Warbling ringers tend to draw less current than   gong   ringers, so changing from gong   ringers   to   warbling ringers may help spread the sound better. Frequency response is the second criterion by which a ringer is described. Because a ringer is supposed to respond to AC waveforms,   it will tend to respond to transients (such as switching transients) when the phone is hung up, or when the rotary dial is used on   an extension phone.   This is called bell tap in the United States; in other   countries,   its often called   bell   tinkle.  Ã‚   While European and   Asian phones tend to bell tap, or   tinkle,   United States ringers that bell tap are considered defective. The bell tap   is   designed out of gong ringers and fine   tuned   with   bias springs.  Ã‚   Warbling   ringers   for use in the   United   States   are designed   not   to respond to short transients;   this   is   usually accomplished   by   rectifying the AC and filtering   it   before   it powers the IC,   then not switching on the output stage unless the voltage lasts long enough to charge a second capacitor.(Roberts, 2006) 2.7 HOOK SWITCH This is a lever that is depressed when the handset is resting in its cradle. It is a two-wire to four-wire converter that provides conversion between the four-wire handset and the two-wire local loop. There are two stages, which are off   hook and on hook Off hook: The state of a telephone line that allows dialing and transmission but prohibits incoming calls from being answered. The phone is off-hook when the handset is removed from the base unit of a stationary phone or press Talk on a portable phone. The term stems from the days when the handset was lifted off an actual hook. When the handset was removed, a spring caused contacts to press together, closing the circuit from the telephone to the switchboard. On hook: The condition that exists when a telephone or other user instrument is not in use, i.e., when idle waiting for a call. Note: on-hook originally referred to the storage of an idle telephone reciever, i.e., separate earpiec, on a swithch hook. The weigth of the recieved depresses the sping leaded switch hook thereby disconnecting the idle instrument (except its bell) from the telephone line.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   (Roberts, 2006) 2.8 THE DIAL There are two types of dials in use around the world. The most common one is called pulse, loop disconnect, or rotary; the oldest form of dialing, its been in use since the 1920s. The other dialing   method,   is called Touch-tone, Dual Tone Multi-Frequency   (DTMF) Pulse dialing   is traditionally accomplished with   a   rotary dial,   which is a speed governed wheel with a cam that opens   and closes a switch in series with the phone and the line.   It works by   actually   disconnecting   or hanging   up   the   telephone   at specific intervals.   The United States standard is one disconnect per  Ã‚   digit,  Ã‚   so if a   1, is dailled, the telephone   is disconnected once. To dial a seven means that it will be   disconnected seven times; and dialling a zero means that it will hang up ten times. Some countries invert the system so 1 causes ten disconnects   and 0,   one disconnect.   Some add a digit so that dialing a 5 would cause six disconnects and 0, eleven disconnects.   There are even some systems in which dialing 0 results in one   disconnect,   and all   other digits are plus one, making a 5 cause six   disconnects and 9, ten disconnects. Although most exchanges are quite happy with rates of 6   to 15   Pulses Per Second (PPS), the phone company accepted   standard is   8   to   10 PPS.   Some modern digital exchanges, free   of   the mechanical   inertia problems of older systems, will accept a   PPS rate as high as 20. Besides   the PPS rate, the dialing pulses have a   make/break ratio,   usually   described as a percentage, but   sometimes   as   a straight   ratio.   The North American standard is 60/40   percent; most of Europe accepts a standard of 63/37 percent.   This is the pulse measured at the telephone, not at the exchange, where   its somewhat   different, having traveled through the phone line   with its   distributed   resistance, capacitance,   and   inductance.  Ã‚   In practice, the   make/break   ratio does not   seem   to   affect   the performance of the dial when attached to a normal loop.   However,each pulse is a switch connect and disconnect across   a complex   impedance, so the switching transient often reaches   300 Volts. Usually, a safe practice is not to have fingers   across   the   line   when dialing. Most pulse dialing phones produced today use a CMOS IC and a keyboard.   Instead of pushing finger round in circles, then removing finger and waiting for the dial to return   before dialing the next digit, the button can be punched as fast as desired.   The IC stores the number and pulses out the number at the correct rate with the correct make/break ratio and the switching is done with a high-voltage switching transistor.   Because the IC has already stored the dialed number in order to pulse it out at the   correct rate,   its a simple matter for telephone designers to   keep   the memory alive   and allow the telephone to   store,   recall,   and redial the Last Number Dialed (LND).   This feature enables easy redial by picking up the handset and pushing just one button. Touch tone is the most modern form of dialing. It is   fast   and less   prone to error than pulse dialing.   Compared to pulse, its major advantage is that its audio band signals can   travel   down phone   lines further than pulse, which can travel only as far   as the   local   exchange. Touch-tone can therefore   send   signals around   the   world via the telephone lines, and can   be   used   to control phone answering machines and computers.   Bell   Labs developed DTMF in order to have a dialing   system that   could travel across microwave links and work   rapidly   with computer   controlled exchanges.   Each transmitted digit consists of two separate audio tones that are mixed together. The four   vertical columns on the keypad are known as   the   high group and the four horizontal rows as the low group; the digit   8 is   composed   of 1336 Hz and 852 Hz.   The level of each   tone   is within   3   dB   of the other.   A complete touch-tone pad has 16 digits, as opposed to ten on a pulse dial.   Besides the numerals 0 to 9, a DTMF   dial has *, #, A, B, C, and D.   Although the letters are not normally found   on consumer telephones, the IC in the phone is capable   of generating them. The   * sign is usually called star or asterisk.  Ã‚   The # sign,   often referred to as the pound sign. is actually   called an   octothorpe. Although many phone users have never used   these digits      they are not, after all, ordinarily   used in   dialing phone   numbers. They   are used   for   control   purposes,   phone answering machines, bringing up remote bases, electronic banking, and repeater control.   The one use of the octothorpe that may be familiar occurs in dialing international calls from phones.   After dialing the complete number,   dialing   the octothorpe   lets the exchange know youve finished   dialing.  Ã‚   It can now begin routing your call; without the octothorpe, it would wait and time out before switching your call. Standard DTMF dials will produce a tone as long as a key   is depressed.  Ã‚   No matter   how long you press,   the   tone   will   be decoded as the appropriate digit.   The shortest duration in which a digit can be sent and decoded is about 100 milliseconds   (ms).   Its pretty   difficult   to dial by hand at   such   a   speed,   but automatic dialers can do it.   A twelve-digit long distance number can be   dialed by an automatic dialer in a little   more   than   a second about as long as it takes a pulse dial to send a   single 0 digit.(Roberts,2006) 2.9 MODULAR CONNECTORS Modular connector is the name given to a family of electrical connectors that were originally used in telephone wiring. Even though they are still used for that purpose they are used for a variety of other things as well. A modular connectors advantage over many other kinds include; small size and ease of plugging and unplugging. Many uses that originally used a bulkier connector have migrated to modular connectors. Probably the most well known applications of modular connectors is for telephone jacks and for ethernet jacks, which are nearly always modular connectors. Figure 2.2 shows types of connectors commonly used. Modular connectors were first used in the registered jack system, so registered Jack specifications describe them precisely. These are the specifications to which all practical modular connectors are built. Modular connectors come in four sizes: 4-, 6-, 8-, and 10-position. A position is a place that can hold a conductor (pin). The positions need not all be used; a connector can have any even number of conductors. Unused positions are usually the outermost positions. The connectors are designed so that a plug can fit into any jack that has at least the number of positions as the plug. Where the jack has more positions than the plug, the outermost positions are unused. However, plugs from different manufacturers may not have this compatibility, and some manufacturers of eight position j